Previously we covered the three Classical theme types: sentence, period, and hybrid. In this post, we will begin learning how composers combine themes to structure complete compositions composed in sonata form.

Johann Christian Bach was the silliest Bach—just look at his portrait. What do you think he’s pondering? Perhaps he heard a bad joke? A definite possibility—portrait artists were known for their “humorous” anecdotes. Perhaps he’s bored of posing? Or worse—a numb cheek! Or perhaps he’s contemplating the first movement of his Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2? If so, what types of things might he be pondering? To answer this question, we must learn how to hear sonata form.

Sonata form was the most popular structure for composing the first and final movements of sonatas, chamber works (trios, quartets, quintets), concertos, and symphonies.¹ Every sonata form piece has the same basic structure, which divides into three large sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation.

Each section has a purpose: (1) the exposition introduces two themes, (2) the development “develops” these themes in exciting ways, and (3) the recapitulation restates these two themes a final time to conclude the piece.

Dealing with all three sonata form sections in a single post would be a bit much, so I’m going to focus on the exposition for now. I will describe the two remaining sections in future posts.

Every sonata form exposition begins with one of the theme types we learned in previous posts. Let’s listen to J.C Bach’s theme beginning the exposition of his Piano Sonata in D major. See if you can determine whether the theme is a sentence, a period, or a hybrid.

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2, i - Theme 1

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata In D Major, i - Theme 1 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

If you heard a period theme type, you were correct: it divides into two halves (antecedent and consequent), the first ending with a weak cadence and the second with a stronger cadence. The stronger cadence ending the theme was a little tricky to hear because J.C. elides it with the next section of music. By elision, I mean that the cadence ends at the same moment the next section of music begins—the ending and beginning overlap.

Since the theme begins J.C.’s sonata form exposition, we will call it theme 1. This theme is one of four essential musical units comprising a sonata form exposition, shown below:

Following theme 1, a transition leads us to theme 2. Transitions are very fluid—they convincingly move away from theme 1 and prepare theme 2. Imagine you’re at a wine tasting: you just tried wine 1 (theme 1) and before you try wine 2 (theme 2) you take a nibble of bread to cleanse your pallet. The bread prepares the way for wine 2, which will have a different character than wine 1. That is the purpose of a transition section—a little nibble of bread.

J.C. composes a textbook transition in his piano sonata, which exhibits two main musical features: (1) a very fluid move away from theme 1, and (2) a brief pause before theme 2. Listen how J.C. bursts into his transition with an exciting melodic flourish high above a low arpeggiated melody. This fluid beginning moves us decisively away from theme 1. Eventually he introduces a new musical idea to settle us down, before cleansing our palette completely with a brief pause that anticipates theme 2.²

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2, i - Transition

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata In D Major, i - Transition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Following this brief pause, J.C. presents theme 2. Generally, theme 2 will have a softer character than theme 1. Despite the contrast, the theme will still be structured as a sentence, period, or hybrid. Let’s take a listen, trying to determine which theme type J.C. composed for theme 2:

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2, i - Theme 2

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata In D Major, i - Theme 2 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Once again, he composed a period theme type—like theme 1. Two balanced halves (antecedent and consequent) compliment one another, ending with a weak and then strong cadence. As with theme 1, J.C. uses an elided cadence to end theme 2—the cadence ends the theme at the same moment the next section of music begins.

This next section is called the closing section, and it “closes” the exposition. Closing sections encompass everything after the cadence ending theme 2. They usually include a series of dramatic cadences, each more decisive than the last. These cadences signal the end of the overall exposition section—they act like a final flurry of fireworks. Let’s listen to J.C.’s closing section, keeping an ear out for the cadential fireworks display.

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2, i - Closing Section

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata In D Major, i - Closing Section by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

And . . . Repeat!

Composers knew that listening for all these different units could be challenging. So, it was common practice to repeat the entire exposition a second time.

In our modern, fast-paced world, not every performer adheres to this practice. Some choose to repeat the exposition, some do not.

Since J.C. intended for his exposition to be repeated, let’s give our own repeated listening a try. I reproduced the listening diagram for the exposition below. Beneath it, I included an audio example of J.C.’s entire exposition. Your challenge: to listen for the each of the units we just discussed. Don’t be afraid to listen a couple times—there’s a lot to hear.

J.C. Bach, Piano Sonata in D major, Op. 5, no. 2, i - Entire Exposition

JC Bach, Piano Sonata In D Major, i - Exposition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Expect the Unexpected

Believe it or not, music scholars have heated arguments over sonata form compositions all the time: “Where precisely does the transition end?” “What exactly is the final note of theme 2?” And so on.³ Between you and me, I think they’re missing the point: sonata form invites listeners into a clever game of fulfilled or thwarted expectations. For example, you probably expect this sentence I am writing to end with a period? The surprising question mark took advantage of your expectations, developed from a lifetime steeped in the English language.

By using a common formal scheme—like sonata form—Classical composers can play with expectations. Sometimes they give us what we want; other times, they delight us with an unexpected twist. This game means that no sonata form composition will perfectly match another, nor can we provide a single description of the perfect sonata form. My description of the four units in the exposition (theme 1, transition, theme 2, closing section) should be understood as guidelines, not rules—if great composers simply followed rules, we’d all be great composers.

With this in mind, let’s attempt a slightly more complex exposition from Mozart’s Piano Sonata No. 3 in B-flat major, K. 281, i.⁴ As you listen, try discerning where the four units of the exposition are: theme 1, transition, theme 2, closing section. Mozart plays with one of these units in a delightful way. See if you can determine which one. Also, don’t worry if you can’t hear everything right away. Identifying even a couple units is a great start.

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, I - Exposition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Okay, let’s dive in! Mozart begins his exposition with theme 1 structured as a period—two balanced halves ending with a weak and then strong cadence, respectively:

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 1 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

The cadence ending the consequent half of his period elides with the transition. Mozart excites us with a pulsating rhythm to begin the transition, placing a smoothly-flowing melody above. He ends, like J.C., with a brief pause before theme 2.

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Transition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Mozart’s theme 2 contains his unexpected twist. He composes the theme as a sentence, but greatly expands the middle section and fools us with a fake-out ending. Before delving into details, take a listen to the complete theme 2:

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Mozart starts his sentence theme with a straight-forward beginning: basic idea and repetition of the basic idea:

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 (Beginning) by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Following a standard beginning, he initiates a greatly expanded middle section—normally a middle section takes half the time. He writes a sprightly “call” and “response” type middle, where a fiery ascending figure is answered by a rapid descending melody. Following three repetitions of this call and response type idea—each presented slightly lower than the last—he settles the music down to prepare us for his cadence. Take a listen (I fade the music out before the cadence, which I’ll discuss momentarily):

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 (Middle) by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Mozart’s expansive middle section supercharges our desire for a cadence—when is this thing going to end? He knows we’re anxious for this conclusion; all themes end with a cadence. Realizing our expectations, Mozart decides to play a game: he begins leading us toward the cadence, but at the last minute he pulls the rug out from under us! He purposefully thwarts the cadence. Take a listen to his clever ruse below. The moment we expect the cadence, he suddenly presents us with an arpeggiated descending figure instead—the ending feels unfulfilled.

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 (Thwarted Ending) by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Now that Mozart’s had his fun, he gets down to business. He repeats the same bit of music a second time, but now properly ending with the cadence we so anxiously desire.

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 (Fulfilled Ending) by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

I recommend comparing the two examples above one more time—the thwarted cadence and the fulfilled cadence.

Before moving to the closing section, let’s listen to the entirety of theme 2 a final time to enjoy Mozart’s delightful expansion of the middle section and his thwarted cadential antics:

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Theme 2 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Mozart concludes his exposition with a closing section comprising quickfire cadences. There can be no doubt the exposition as a whole is coming to a close.

Mozart, Piano Sonata No 3 In B Flat Major, K 281, i - Closing Section by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Wrapping Up

At the end of the day, listening should be an enjoyable experience. Each sonata provides a delightful game of fulfilled and thwarted expectations. Personally, I play the game by trying to identify the big thematic chunks first: where’s theme 1 and where’s theme 2? On the repeated hearing, I might consider when I “feel” like I’m in a transition between themes? (I don’t care about identifying exactly where the transition begins. I’m just playing along). Finally, I enjoy whatever antics might obscure the onset of the closing section—this is usually the toughest part to identify, since composers know you want a conclusion and can take advantage of your expectations.

Speaking of conclusions, that was your intro to sonata form, focusing on the exposition. The next post will consider the final section of a sonata form: the recapitulation. I’m saving the middle section—the development—for last. I’ve included a bonus listening challenge at the end of this post to practice the exposition a little more. Happy listening!

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Bonus Listening Challenge

Haydn’s String Quartet, Op. 76, No. 4 begins with a wonderful exposition to test our listening skills. All the requisite units are present: theme 1, transition, theme 2, and closing section. Haydn includes delightful twists throughout.

I provide the audio for the entire exposition below, followed by a breakdown of the musical units. I add selective commentary, but leave a lot of the listening up to you. Remember, it’s not about being perfect, but rather playing along with Haydn as you listen.

Haydn, String Quartet, Op 76, No 4, I - Exposition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Breakdown of units:

Theme 1:

Haydn composes theme 1 as a period.

Haydn, String Quartet, Op 76, No 4, I - Theme 1 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Transition:

Haydn confuses us a little by beginning with a very slow-moving transition. Is this still theme 1 material? A sudden, vigorous explosion answers our question; it turns out we were floating on a river headed toward rapids. Eventually, the waters abate and Haydn briefly pauses, signaling that theme 2 is about to begin.

Haydn, String Quartet, Op 76, No 4, I - Transition by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Theme 2:

Like the Mozart example above, Haydn composes theme 2 as a greatly expanded sentence. If you had trouble discerning where this theme ended, don’t worry, Haydn composed a playfully obscure ending on purpose.

Haydn, String Quartet, Op 76, No 4, I - Theme 2 by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

Closing Section:

Haydn, String Quartet, Op 76, No 4, I - Closing Section by EJ Farnsworth EJ Farnsworth

I hope you enjoyed the post. Always feel free to share your favorite pieces in the comment section and I will do my best to use examples from these pieces in future posts.

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